Abstract
The melodious madrigals of Sanskrit literature do not comprise of only high order of lyricism for the passionate readers of literary romances but these have scientific cum religious description of nature as well as of art and craft from which wizards of museology and conservation can get prolific and profound idea about indigenous system of restoration and stablisation.
Introduction
The absolute ethics of our land Vedas are certainly the sequels of spiritualistic vision of our ancestors, but it does not mean that these are acosmistic in approach.
The development of pagnistic thought and belief which gave birth to henotheism and above all to acatheistic monotheism is the greatest achievement of the Vedic Pantheon. We are proud of them who recited Ano Bhadrah : Kritwo Yantoo Vishwathaha. (Here the Poet's feeling of the welfare of man kind is reflected who makes prayer in devotion to nature for the upliftment of the people) and are fortunate successors of those for whom Shantirausadhaya and Shantiravanaspataya (In Yajur Veda these terms are used for tree and other elements of greenery as well as medicinal plants believing in their power to provide tranquility) were ritualistic hymns. They provocated that nature itself has a moral order (Rit) or disciplined way of regulation and this systematic regulation is the zygotic cause of our healthy survival.
Classical Concept
In the cut throat competitive race of scientific development and material achievement even we Indian have forgotten the altruistic naturalism of Rit and Sunrit. Rit means systematic rules of nature and the word Sunrit denotes the Prosperous Survival of man Reference of Indra, Varuna, Diti, Aditi as the representatives of religious concern but also of scientific realization. Such references explain the Vedic conscience of accepting nature as a creative and protective power.
Atharav-veda (Aranya to preethivi sayo namastu) goes on to pray that the forests and plants on earth should have pleasing effect on people and Taitariya Brahamana says:
Varmhavan Vrahmsh Vriksh AAaso Yato Dhava Prithivi Nisttatakshu (Trees, space, and earth are also endowed with the merits of supreme divinity). The Gayatri Mantra dedicated to the God of dusk and dawn is an instance of our spiritual devotionalism dedicated to generative power of the Nature. The concept of Sursari and Nadiswari in Sanskrit literature not only accepts perennial streams as heavenly gifts but also declares that earthly pleasures and material achievements cannot be gained without the sanctity and purity of rivers like Ganga, Yamuna, Krishna and Cauvery.
It has also been said Ganga hinam hatam desh. (A country which has no perennial river like the Ganga is dead). The traditional of religious bath and tree worship which have deep rooted historicity is a general feature of India's socio religious life. Bhagwan Krishna's acceptance in Geeta himself as the papal tree, Lord Buddha's enlightenment symbol, the relation of all the Jaina Trithankaras with vivid trees shows that lover for nature is not only a Brahmanical concept but it is the genetic character of our land. Vedic concept of Pushan's generative power is remarkable.
The Kailash peak of the Great Himalaya mythologically occupies great importance as the seat of Sawambhu. In this way Kshirsagar and Meru Parvat related to Vishnu is not an utopian imagination but rational attitude to link nature with divinity. The Salbhanjika and Dohad icons generally shown with three branches reflects our ancestor's thought, that nature is a living phenomenon charged with spiritual power and it has cerebrumatic receiver to feel human sense and emotion. Kalidas's Reetusabhharam and Meghdootam are famous because the poet has presented nature as the soul of celestialism. The erection of temples, monasteries and Jaina Shrines in the midst of natural panorama proves that love for nature is not only a dry hypothesis for us but it is our cult, creed and cradeo.
Fortunately the people of the land of great Guru Padamsamshava could easily realize cosmic power of the nature because worshipping Kanchanjanga is the genesis of their cult. Also reciters of our holy hymns Satam Sardam Jivem (wish to live till hundred years) knew it is only possibly when our demand of Kale varsatu prajanyo prithivi sasya shalini (Need of heavy rainfall and healthy fauna and flora) will be fulfilled.
Art Preservation
India, the country of Gandhar, Mathura, Sarnath, Gaya of the land of Sanchi. Bharhut, the cradle of rock-cut architecture, Bhaj, Kondaney, Pitalkhora, Bagh, Badami, Ajanta and Elephanta, the lap of Chidambaram. Brihdeshwara, Minakshi, Konark and Khajuraho has a golden history of art from Proto-historic Harappa to these days of Super computer. The Syncretic character of our culture is quite obvious in our art traditions. It is an outcome of our indigenous spirit and it reflects our philosophy, stark realism, sense of spiritualism and aestheicism having tender adaptation of occidental art trends to develop itself as the best. The salient aspect of our traditions is not only the erection but preservation also, to maintain their dignity and to make them a subject of socio-cultural glory. The very first and foremost thing is that many of our monuments were built in many successive periods. The artistic establishment of Sanchi is Sunga-Satvahana period, the continuity of Ajanta period and the continuous development of Nalanda Vihar from Ashokan time to Pala age are some of the instances of our preservative sensibility. Wherever literature is concerned there are so many texts like Vishnudharmottara Purana, Agnipurana lakshana, Yashodara's commentary on Kamsutra and many others which reflect the nature of damage which makes the icon ritually underserving. There has been a mention of some restorative techniques also in these texts, to make the character of their art a subject of immortal dignity.
Ship ratana narrates: Dose laghutare bimbam naiva tyajyam kadachan/
bahuchede karachede podaechede talhaivaia
Huthaiva sphutitey bhinne yasmin navyave gato/
Vairapayaman jayate yasya lat tyjayam prayso bhavet/
Angulayadi parishedede bandhanam sasyate budhaih/(When an image is slightly damaged it should never be discarded, but when its arms, hands, feet and legs are served, when it is broken and split up or its nine portions have gone or when it gets disfigured it is usually to be discarded. If its fingers etc. dare damaged the sages recommended binding them).
Agni Purana, a text written in Post Gupta age also describes Jirnodhar Vidhim(method of restoration)
Shribhagvanuvach
Jirnodharvidhim vaksya bhusitam Suapayed guruh
acutam vinaysedgahe atijernam partiyate vyangam Ch Siladayam
naysednam Ca purvavat
Samharvidhina tatra tattvan Samhritya deshik
(Here god himself describes the process of replacing old images. As stone image which has become disfigured should be cut again to give new forms having all its attributes and characteristics.
Vaditraih praksipettoye gaurve dakshi namdadet
Yat pramana Ca yadravaya tammanam Sthapayedoine
(After replacing old image a new image should be carved, installed in the place of the old one, made of the same substance and having the same dimensions as the original.)
The exhaustive, text Pratima-Lakhan describes various types of images such as Salija Mritika, Ratanodvhava Dhatu Jamita and district instruction in regard to different materials. The ritualistic use of milk, perfume, tulsidal, deodhar, Chandan and to prepare other materials are subjects or research. It appears to be quite certain that the Pooja system was not just to purify the environment but also to protect the icons and other religious and artistic material from the impact of biological growth.
Conclusion
Though in ancient time there was no scientific methodology for the preservation of art objects, we cannot deny the fact that our forefathers and deep-rooted awareness for the proper care, handling and restoration of art objects. They were well acquainted with some of the natural things which were having insecticidal or fungicidal properties. The leaves of Neem were kept between the pages and holy books like great epics were wrapped in red cloth, explicit that there was preservative sensibility among people of the period. It is now well known that burning of Deodar, Amra (Mango), Chandan (Sandal) and other woods not only fulfilled sanctitious purpose but also purified the environment.
The architectural features of rock cut caves like AJANTA and ELLORA and the Indian temples are good subjects for the students of Museology and Conservation to work for evaluating the efficacy of various natural materials and thereby reviving the old practice on more scientific grounds. However, one can say that the concept of preservation is neither modern nor occidental but completely classical and indigenous.
Source: Rig Veda, Yaju Veda, Athrav Veda, Agnipurana, Shilp Ratana and Pratimalakshan.
Kumar Sanjay Jha & Anand Burdhan, National Museum Institute, Janpath, New Delhi
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Abstract
India is known for the moral ethos of its people. Indian beliefs have been associated with compassion and respect for nature and its creations since ages. The religious beliefs of Jain, Vedic and Buddhist traditions in India established the principles of ecological harmony centuries ago. Indian religious and philosophical traditions embody the earliest concept of environmental ethics. Some of the important traditional environmental beliefs prevalent in India in which nature has been valued are discussed here. In Rajasthan, a desert state of India, the Khejri tree is valued for its moisture-retaining properties, and it is not axed even if it comes between the constructions. The live example of this is cited in Salasar Balaji temple in Sikar district. A Bishnoi cult of India inhabiting the Jodhpur region is known for wildlife protection specially the famous Black Buck that is an endangered species. Some areas popularly known as sacred groves or orans that are dedicated to a local deity worshipped by the inhabitants of that area are especially reserved for biodiversity conservation, and anthropogenic activities are completely prohibited. These and many more similar examples show that traditional beliefs of Indian societies have got a deeper understanding of the ecological system and have been completely integrated with nature to evolve sustainable lifestyle.
Hinduism: An eco-friendly way of life Dr. Krishna
Fri, Sep 11, 2009 14:01:09 IST
IN THIS era of global warming, much effort is given to promote environment-friendly living and lifestyle. In this regard, Hinduism is very much forward and since time immemorial, Hindu rishis (sages) were much aware of the Panchabhuta (five elements) and the need and also the process to live in harmony with everything animate and inanimate in this world. For example, in Hinduism even Gods are imagined in natural atmosphere and worshipped associating them with animals and trees.
Lord Vishnu (the saver of the whole universe) is imagined as sleeping peacefully on the bed formed with Sheshanag (great snake) on great ocean. Lord Shiva is meditating on glaciers, accompanied by bull named as Nandi and River Ganga is flowing out of the hair of his head and snakes are playing peacefully on his holy body. The ocean and the glaciers are most important chain for existence of this globe and are thus kept as most sacred place and protected from any human intervention.
In Hinduism, all Gods are worshipped with one animal as vahan (carrier/company). Apart from spiritual meanings, this is helpful to protect animal bio-diversity; all the animals which have an important role in environment are preserved carefully by allotting a special status as attached with Gods-- for example, beautiful white swan is associated with Lord Brahma (the creator) and Goddess Saraswati (Goddess of education and fine arts). God Maheswara is sitting on Brisava (great Ox ), Lord Krishna is associated with cows. Dhavali and Saoli are the names of His two favourite cows. Goddess Laxmi is accompanied by owl or elephants, Devi Durga is sitting on a lion, Devi Ganga is sitting on Makara (an ancient sea-animal looks like an elephant), Lord Ganesha is worshipped with a mouse and Lord Kartikeya is seen on a peacock.
Among dus avatars (ten incarnations) of Lord Vishnu, fish, tortoise and wild boar are described as the three most primitive avatars. In this way, Hindus tried to point out the chain of evolution of life on earth, and this also gives a special protection to tortoise, fishes and wild boars.
Most of the temples in India, especially in rural areas are home to different animals like monkey, tortoises, fish, snakes, bats, owls etc. In many Shiva temples, snakes are worshipped. Snakes easily move in and around the temples, take milk from devotees, nobody harms them and even they don't harm any one. In many ways, Hindu culture teaches humans to build a humane relation with animals and live together sharing the earth.
Ayurveda (the Veda for life) prescribes many herbal treatments for many diseases; this not only saves human being with natural medication, but also saves herbs and plants as useful friends of human being and facilitates respect to nature.
Also it offers many natural pest control measures which are popular and used in homes. For example, turmeric powder is used to get rid of red ants in the kitchen. Sarpagandha plant is planted near the courtyard to repel snakes etc. These prevent the use of chemical pesticides.
In rural areas of Orissa, farmers rarely kill rats; they just catch one rat, colour it hugely with sindoor (vermillion) and release it. Next day, rats stop visiting the place for at least three months. Biodiversity management groups may list out such practices and encourage replication of these 'good practices' to keep the food-chain intact and help preserve the bio-diversity.
To protect the environment, protection of trees is very necessary. Hindu culture gives special attention to this also. Banyan and bata trees are given the status of God and imagined as an abode of Lord Narayana. These trees cannot be cut or uprooted according to Hindu culture and plantation of these plants is considered as most pious work.
But unfortunately, after English subjugation of India since 1757 to 1947, a tendency of rejecting all the practices of Hindu culture as 'foolish thing' or 'blind faith' is embedded in the mind of people and this has taken much toll on relation between human and nature also.
Bio-diversity of India today, is almost destroyed. Sustainable education to people through generations on importance of bio-diversity and its impact on global warming is a Herculean task. Our culture could do it in a simple way—way of love, respect and mutual recognition!
Lord Vishnu (the saver of the whole universe) is imagined as sleeping peacefully on the bed formed with Sheshanag (great snake) on great ocean. Lord Shiva is meditating on glaciers, accompanied by bull named as Nandi and River Ganga is flowing out of the hair of his head and snakes are playing peacefully on his holy body. The ocean and the glaciers are most important chain for existence of this globe and are thus kept as most sacred place and protected from any human intervention.
In Hinduism, all Gods are worshipped with one animal as vahan (carrier/company). Apart from spiritual meanings, this is helpful to protect animal bio-diversity; all the animals which have an important role in environment are preserved carefully by allotting a special status as attached with Gods-- for example, beautiful white swan is associated with Lord Brahma (the creator) and Goddess Saraswati (Goddess of education and fine arts). God Maheswara is sitting on Brisava (great Ox ), Lord Krishna is associated with cows. Dhavali and Saoli are the names of His two favourite cows. Goddess Laxmi is accompanied by owl or elephants, Devi Durga is sitting on a lion, Devi Ganga is sitting on Makara (an ancient sea-animal looks like an elephant), Lord Ganesha is worshipped with a mouse and Lord Kartikeya is seen on a peacock.
Among dus avatars (ten incarnations) of Lord Vishnu, fish, tortoise and wild boar are described as the three most primitive avatars. In this way, Hindus tried to point out the chain of evolution of life on earth, and this also gives a special protection to tortoise, fishes and wild boars.
Most of the temples in India, especially in rural areas are home to different animals like monkey, tortoises, fish, snakes, bats, owls etc. In many Shiva temples, snakes are worshipped. Snakes easily move in and around the temples, take milk from devotees, nobody harms them and even they don't harm any one. In many ways, Hindu culture teaches humans to build a humane relation with animals and live together sharing the earth.
Ayurveda (the Veda for life) prescribes many herbal treatments for many diseases; this not only saves human being with natural medication, but also saves herbs and plants as useful friends of human being and facilitates respect to nature.
Also it offers many natural pest control measures which are popular and used in homes. For example, turmeric powder is used to get rid of red ants in the kitchen. Sarpagandha plant is planted near the courtyard to repel snakes etc. These prevent the use of chemical pesticides.
In rural areas of Orissa, farmers rarely kill rats; they just catch one rat, colour it hugely with sindoor (vermillion) and release it. Next day, rats stop visiting the place for at least three months. Biodiversity management groups may list out such practices and encourage replication of these 'good practices' to keep the food-chain intact and help preserve the bio-diversity.
To protect the environment, protection of trees is very necessary. Hindu culture gives special attention to this also. Banyan and bata trees are given the status of God and imagined as an abode of Lord Narayana. These trees cannot be cut or uprooted according to Hindu culture and plantation of these plants is considered as most pious work.
But unfortunately, after English subjugation of India since 1757 to 1947, a tendency of rejecting all the practices of Hindu culture as 'foolish thing' or 'blind faith' is embedded in the mind of people and this has taken much toll on relation between human and nature also.
Bio-diversity of India today, is almost destroyed. Sustainable education to people through generations on importance of bio-diversity and its impact on global warming is a Herculean task. Our culture could do it in a simple way—way of love, respect and mutual recognition!
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Hinduism Promotes
Environment Protection
Environment Protection
To Hindus, the concept of environment protection is not a modern phenomenon; they inherited it from their ancestors. During the earliest, formative period of their society, Hindus first perceived God�s presence around them through nature. The natural forces that governed their daily lives were considered as manifestations of an almighty creator they called the Brahman (not to be confused with the Brahmin caste).
Ancient Hindus felt Brahman�s presence in everything around them. Since these divine forces sustained all living creatures and organic things on this earth, to please God, they felt they must live in harmony with His creation including earth, rivers, forests, sun, air, and mountains. This belief spawned many rituals that are still followed by traditional Hindus in India. For example, before the foundation of a building is dug, a priest is invited to perform the Bhoomi Pooja in order to worship and appease mother earth and seek forgiveness for violating her. Certain plants, tries and rivers were considered sacred, and worshipped in festivals. In a traditional Hindu family, to insult or abuse nature is considered a sacrilegious act. A Hindu mother would severely scold her child for acts like ripping the limb of a plant or urinating or spitting on a tree or in any body of water.
Hindus believed that humans, gods and nature were integral parts of one �organic whole�. Ancient Hindu writers, later on, personified each of the divine force as a Devata or deity worthy of reverence and worship. Even Charvaka, the atheist philosopher of ancient India, who totally rejected Vedas, the Hindu scriptures, considered the principles of Vayu (air) Bhumi (earth), Jala (water), Agni (fire) as important factors in regulating the lives of humans, animals and plants. This Hindu worldview of ancient Vedic times became formalized into the Samkhya system of philosophy that promoted ecology-care in Hindu attitude.
This Hindu prayer called Shanti path recited to conclude every Hindu ceremony, reflect the Hindus� connectedness with nature: �There is peace in heavenly region; there is peace in the environment; the water is cooling; herbs are healing; the plants are peace-giving; there is harmony in the celestial objects and perfection in knowledge; everything in the universe is peaceful; peace pervades everywhere. May that peace come to me!�
Alas! In the process of modernization and mimicking of western lifestyle and consumerism, modern Hindus have forgotten their ancestors� view on ecology, and have acquired the western exploitative attitude towards nature. Lush forests have been denuded, rivers, including the sacred river Ganga (the Ganges), have become polluted with industrial wastes. Delhi has become one of the most polluted cities in the world. Many beautiful birds and animals have become extinct. This devastation is taking place in the name of progress.
The Indian environment-protection movement opposing this ecological destruction, is run by westernized elites, and based on western model. It has failed to become a mass movement, for it is devoid of spiritual foundation or content necessary to inspire Hindus. Prof. David Frawley (How I Became a Hindu), laments: �Unfortunately, Hindus have forgotten this Vedic view of the earth and don�t protect their natural environment. They have not added a (traditional) Hindu point of view to the ecology movement which is perhaps the main idealistic movement in the world today��part of the challenge of the modern Hinduism is to reclaim its connection to the earth.�
� Ajit Adhopia
December 2, 2001
December 2, 2001
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Judge Weeramantry focuses on Hindu contribution to environment protection
http://www.asiantribune.com/index.php?q=node/6083Judge Weeramantry focuses on Hindu contribution to environment protection
Hinduism demonstrates an ecological awareness and great respect for the natural world, said Judge C.G.Weeramantry at the inaugural meeting of the World Future Council held in Hamburg on 9 -13 May 2007.
The following is an abridged version of his speech:
Hinduism, the Environment and the Long Term Future
There are several principles of importance to the human future that can be distilled from the teachings of Hinduism – principles relating to the inevitability of the consequences of one’s actions, the interconnectedness of all things, the linkage between past, present and future, the integrity of the human family, the harmony that is necessary between humanity and the natural order and many others.
Running through them all is the all-pervasiveness of the divinity, which is present in all things and a cosmic view of space and time which militates strongly against a short-term view of the consequences of one’s actions. This requires us to think, moreover, of the prevalence of the needs of the community over the egoism of the individual.
Hinduism, regarded by its adherents as Sanatana Dharma, or the Eternal Truth, contains perhaps the most ancient religious scripture known to the world. These texts contain the theology, philosophy and guidance for daily life that form the basis of the religion of over a billion people in the world today.
The principal sources of dharma are the sruti (that which is heard – the Vedic literature which was originally passed down orally) the smriti (that which is remembered –includes the itihasa or epic poems of history and the puranas or stories from ancient history) and ac?r? (the norms and standards constituting the practice of those who know and live by the first two sources of dharma).
There are hundreds of smriti texts, constituting an immense body of juristic literature equal to if not exceeding that in other systems. This vast treasury of concepts and principles was virtually unknown to the West for centuries. It was only in 1794, with the translation by the jurist Sir William Jones of the Laws of Manu, that even the existence of this repository of legal wisdom became known to Western legal scholarship.
1. Ecological Awareness in Hinduism
It is clear that the most ancient texts on Hinduism demonstrate through the praise of the deities an ecological awareness and great respect for the natural world. There are many specific teachings on environmental matters contained in all these writings and ecological activists have drawn much inspiration from the text. A few examples are:
* “Do not cut trees, because they remove pollution.” (Rig Veda, 6:48:17)
* “Do not disturb the sky and do not pollute the atmosphere.” (Yajur Veda,5:43)
* Destruction of forests is taken as destruction of the state, and reforestation an act of rebuilding the state and advancing its welfare. Protection of animals is considered a sacred duty. (Charak Sanhita)
All of this is an enormous source of concepts, principles, traditions and practices which is of deep relevance to the study of the future of humanity and of the long-term perspectives which it is so essential to bring into the thought-frames of the present generation.
Among these concepts are the following:
2.The Presence of the Divinity in all Things
An important feature of the Hindu worldview is that the supreme deity resides in all things. This divinity is present in all things for as Sri Krishnan says in the Bhagavad-Gita:
“On me the Universe is strung
Like clustered pearls upon a thread
In water I am the flavour
In sun and moon the light”
We are told in the Upanishads that “after creating the Universe God entered into every object created.” Consequently his creations must be treated with respect.
This view of the relationship between God and creation inspires Hindus to maintain a harmonious relationship between human beings and nature.
3. The interconnectedness of all things
Hindu law and philosophy are set in a cosmic view of the universe with aeons of time spreading behind and before us. The present and even the centuries behind and before us are a microcosm of time in the infinite expanse of eternity.
Within that cosmic view there is also a view of the interconnectedness of all things. The nexus between things past, present and future is emphasised as is the causal relationship between them. All of this flows from the concept that God pervades all things. Since the divine presence is everywhere all things have an integral connection with all others.
4. The Integrity of Humanity, Past, Present and Future
It follows from what has been said before that Hinduism takes a holistic view of the human community. Past, present and future are one organic whole just as all of humanity is one organic whole.
In the words of Radhakrishnan “To the Hindu, human society is not an organisation. It is an organism. It is a living, growing thing.”
5. The Unity of the Human Family
We have referred already to the integrity of the human family, past present and future. It is one family occupying one small abode in space. As such their vision is not of a planet that is vast and limitless but of one which is small and limited. One family occupies it and must therefore share it, small though it be.
The One World/One Family concept has today become more urgent than ever, for whether through trade or communications or travel or the information revolution or the shortage of earth resources or pollution, we are increasingly realising that we survive or perish as one family.
6. The Need for Human Harmony with all forms of Life
Hindu teaching is rich in its instructions on harmonious coexistence with all forms of life.
This means a bond not only between humans and animals, but also between humans and all forms of vegetation. In the Bhagavad Gita, Sri Krishna compares the world to a single banyan tree with unlimited branches under which all the species of animals, humans and demigods wander.
7. The Sarva Bhuta Hita: The Notion of the Welfare of All Beings
The highest ethical standard that Hindus ought to apply, according to their dharma, is the concept of Sarva Bhuta Hita. The tradition requires that the common good takes precedence over private advantage. That includes protection of the environment, the support of the poor and needy, the oppressed, the needs of children and those who are yet to be born and the welfare of other living beings.
8. Doctrine of Karma: The inexorable effects of present actions on the future
The doctrine of Karma means that an action which has been committed by a human being in this life, follows him or her again and again through future lives (whether he or she wishes it or not). Every action performed creates its own chain of reactions and events, some of which may take a long time to surface. Environmental pollution is an example of the karma of those who believe that they could continue polluting the environment with impunity and regardless of the consequences for future generations. Once karma begins, it continues without a break. Regardless of whether the person is dead, his or her karma will survive into their next birth.
9. Examples of Practical Action Based on Hinduism to Protect the Environment
The Bishnois, Defenders of the Environment :
The Bishnois was a small community in the state of Rajasthan who practised environmental conservation as a part of their daily religious duty. The religion is an offshoot of Hinduism and was founded by Guru Maharaj Jambeshwar in the 15th century. He believed that if trees were protected, animal life would be sustained and his community would survive. Therefore he formulated twenty nine injunctions. Principal among them was a ban on the cutting of any green tree and killing of any animal or bird.
The Bishnois people’s defence of the natural environment needs to be more widely known as one of the world’s classic instances of martyrdom in defence of the environment. In 1730 Amrita Devi, a Bishnois woman was at home with her three daughters when she came to know that a party of woodcutters sent by the Maharaja of Jodhpur were on their way to fell a green Khejri tree for the construction of the Maharaja’s new palace. She prevented the woodcutters from felling the tree and was killed by them for her resistance, as were her three daughters. The news spread like wildfire among the Bhishnois community and hundreds of them assembled on the spot, prepared to give their lives in this cause and 363 of them did. This is known as the Khejrali Massacre. The Maharaja apologised for the conduct of his officials but this has ever since been an inspiration to the environmental protectionists of India.
10. Avoidance of Waste
“Resources are given to mankind for their living. Knowledge (Isha)
of using them is necessary.” - The first stanza of Isha Upanishad
Gandhi’s classic statements that have inspired the environmental movement include ‘The country’s development has to be in harmony with nature … each member of a community has to live in communion with nature.’ ‘The earth has resources to meet everybody’s needs, but not anybody’s greed.’ ‘Man must voluntarily limit his wants.’ And ‘We must learn to live lives of simplicity and austerity.’
11 A Vision of Sustainable Development
Hindu philosophy with its deep notions of trusteeship of earth resources and its reverence for nature as a sustainer of humanity had encapsulated within it the modern notion of sustainable development. The assets of nature are there for humans to use for their sustenance and development. But the assets of nature are held in trust. This is the essence of the modern concept of sustainable development and Hindu philosophy provides a strong philosophical base for this concept.
11. A Deep Concern for Future Generations
This is interlocked with the previous topic. Trusteeship of resources is based on the philosophy that the wealth of nature provided by God is provided for humanity in general and not for this generation or that. The long term vision of Hinduism reaches through to thousands of generations and all eternity. It is totally incompatible with this notion that any one generation has the right to diminish or extinguish the resources that nature provides. Indeed this would almost amount to sacrilege and also to theft from future generations of their rightful inheritance. This idea of the preservation of nature can be illustrated by many episodes in Hindu history.
12.Respect Due To Land and the Landscape, Which are Considered Holy
Hindu philosophy is impregnated with notions of respect for nature and for natural phenomena such as forests, rivers and mountains. The environment is alive and teems with life, trees and rocks become shrines and the river is respected as a source and support of physical and spiritual life. Nature, like the gods of old, can be both threatening and protecting.
13. Our Dependence on Mother Earth which nourishes and tends Humanity like a Mother
Hinduism is replete with spiritual and poetical references to mother earth. The Atharva Veda, devoted to praises of mother earth contains 63 verses embodying the sentiments of Hindu visionaries regarding the dependence of humans on mother nature and the respect for the natural order that follows naturally from such a vision. The Prithvi Sukta or Bhumi Sukta hymn in the Atharva Veda says “Earth is my mother. I am her son.” Prithvi or Bhumi Devi is the Goddess who personifies Mother Earth
14. The Environment and Its Components (Both Living and Non-Living Forms) – Have Rights – including the right to exist without being harmed, polluted or destroyed.
All of the preceding discussions would have served to highlight the basic Hindu approach to nature which vests it with a personality of its own. It is not a subject of ownership, but has rights of its own. It is not a form of subordinate existence for the purpose of serving humans, but is in a partnership with humans
15. Factors that Warp our Relationship with Mother Earth
The conduct outlined above naturally stands in marked opposition to the egocentric and materialistic vision which is a major cause of our environmental problems today.
The Hindu vision of dharma involves the idea that human beings must accept certain limitations on their desires so that the natural order can be preserved. Further, the Gita prescribes a devout and frugal lifestyle that has inspired and may be expected to continue to inspire ecologically supportive lives in which wasteful consumption is eliminated
16. Governmental Duty in regard to the Environment
“Wealth and life are preserved by men for enjoyment. But what avail
a man to have wealth and life who has not protected the land?” - sukraniti
Hindu literature is very strong on the duties of rulers in relation to the environment. In fact, the titles associated with kingship reflect this very strongly. Among these are descriptions such as Bhupalana (protector of the earth), Bupala (earth guardian), Bhubharata (husband of the earth).
* * *
We close, as we began, with an emphasis on the spiritual dimension, which is lacking in our modern approaches and attitudes to all issues connected with the long-term future. This lacuna in modern thinking, as compared to the frameworks of ancient thought, has been picked up by contemporary Hindu thinkers as a crucial area for action as we address the task of conserving the human future.
To quote Swami Tripurari, a modern commentator on the Bhagavad-Gita
“Our present environmental crisis is in essence a spiritual crisis…
The current deplorable condition demands a spiritual response.
One of the measures that could help a great deal to fulfil this need is to regenerate and rejuvenate basic values of Hindu culture and propagate them.”
Notes:
1.Vedante for the Western World, ed. Christopher Isherwood, Unwin Books 1948 p.9
2.Human Ecology in the Vedas. Marta Vannucci, DK Print World Pvt. Ltd., India, 1999
3. See in general Juristic Concepts of Ancient Indian Polity, Nagendra Singh, Vision Books
4. Bhagavad-Gita VII.7 – Hindu Scriptures, Everyman’s Library, 1972, p.280
5. Radhakrishnan,Religion and Society, p.81
6. For further reading see e.g.Bishnois, R.S., A Blueprint For Environment – Conservation as Creed, Surya Publications, (1992)
7. Source: review of George A.James ed. Ethical Perspectives on Environmental Issues in India (1999) by Saliendra Nath Gosh on http://www.india-seminar.com/2001/499/499%20books.htm
- Asian Tribune -
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Hinduism-and-Environment
http://astrovision.ca/pages/articles/hinduism-and-environment.php
How Religion can Protect the Environment (Dr. Suresh Basrur)1. Hindu teachings on nature and the environment
From the earliest days of the Hindu civilization, reverence for the environment has been an integral part of Hindu society. Our ancient forefathers perceived God’s presence around them through nature; they considered the natural forces which affected their lives as manifestations of the Supreme Being or God named Brahman.
The immense wisdom of the founders of Hindu civilization made them realize that these divine natural forces were not only necessary for the sustenance of humans, but also for the sustenance of all living things around them – animals, plants, fish, and organisms of every kind. They felt that they must live in harmony with all of God’s creations, respect and revere all of nature and the divine forces. They identified the divine forces as air (vaayu), water (jala), earth (bhumi), fire (agni), and sky (aakaasha). These elements are an integral part of Hindu worship. Many hymns were written in the Vedas praising the elements. Rivers, forests, animals, and the Sun were considered worthy of worship. The Samkhya philosophy of Vedic times describes ecology as integral to human existence.
Hymn IX of Book 10 of Rig Veda is dedicated to Water. The hymn recognizes the life giving ability of water, not only physically but also spiritually. The prayer concludes that plentiful supply of pure water be always available.
The far sightedness of the Hindu sages is evident in Vedic hymns, because, in ancient times, natural resources were not scarce and the capacity of nature to heal itself was much more than the harm inflicted on nature by human activity. However, Hindu sages realized that for sustainable development, preservation of nature was essential.
Here is a hymn from Isha Upanishad:
"Everything in the universe belongs to the Supreme God. Therefore take only what you need, that is set aside for you. Do not take anything else, for you know to whom it belongs".
The holy scripture Bhagavatam (Volume 2, Chapter 1, Verses 32-33) says
"The air is His breath, the trees are the hairs of His body, The oceans His waist, the hills and mountains are His bones, The rivers are the veins of the Cosmic Being (Brahman), His movements are the passing of ages".
Even to this day, the significance of all these manifestations of God is understood; so, they are held in reverence and worshipped by Hindus. Reverence for the river Ganges, the cow, the Cobra, the monkey, etc. is known the world over. Hindu mythology describes river Ganges as originating from the top of Lord Shiva’s head in the Himalayas.
Hinduism has revered the tree for thousands of years. Official seals from the Indus Valley civilization (circa 3000 BC) depict the tree as a powerful symbol of abundance. King Ashoka (304 – 232 BC) created laws and edicts for the protection of forests. Trees are treated with great respect because, like all living things, trees have an atman or soul.
The concept of ahimsa (non-violence and respect for life) prevents a Hindu from causing harm to any creature, and therefore, most Hindus are vegetarian. Thus, in summary, Hindu belief says: Everything in the universe is a manifestation of Brahman. To be Hindu, therefore, means to see divinity in everything. Everything means that which we can see or perceive, plus that which we can not see or perceive.
2. Conservation of natural resources and prevention of excess consumption
Hinduism teaches us that we should use the world unselfishly in order to maintain the natural balance and to repay God for the gifts he has given. Lord Krishna spread the message that nature needs to be preserved
Bhagavad Gita 3:12 says that:
For, so sustained by sacrifice, the gods will give you the food of your desire. Whoso enjoys their gift, yet gives nothing, is a thief, no more, no less.
In Hinduism, spiritual endeavour advocates renunciation of all sensual attachments to the world. At the same time, the doctrine of Dharma (proper conduct) emphasizes a need to act “for the sake of the greater good of the world.”
Isha Upanishad says: “Resources are given to mankind for their living. Knowledge of using the resources is absolutely necessary.”
Mahatma Gandhi has delivered inspirational messages for the environmental movement. He has said: “The country’s development has to be in harmony with nature.” “Each member of a community has to live in communion with nature.” “The earth has resources to meet everybody’s needs, but not anybody’s greed.” “Man must voluntarily limit his wants.” “We must learn to live lives of simplicity and austerity.”
Hinduism stresses that true happiness comes from within, not from material possessions. This means that material possessions, and the consumption of materials and energy, should not be allowed to dominate life. Life’s main purpose is to discover our spiritual nature and the peace and fulfilment it brings. Exploitation of this world and everything on it, animate and inanimate, is considered by Hindu teachers to be contrary to this central purpose of life.
3. Responsibility of every human being.
According to Hindu dharma, the highest ethical standard that Hindus ought to apply comes from the concept of Sarva Bhuta Hita, which means the welfare of all living beings. This requires that the common good take precedence over private advantage. That includes protection of the environment, caring for the oppressed and the poor, protecting the needs of children and those who are yet to be born, and the welfare of all other living beings.
Ancient Hindu literature strongly advocates the duties of Kings and rulers in the preservation of the environment. Therefore, in today’s world, preservation of the environment should be a prime duty of politicians, lawmakers, powerful heads of corporations and businesses, and those who wield power through wealth. Hindu philosophy with its deep notions of trusteeship of earth resources and its reverence for nature as a sustainer of humanity has encapsulated within it the modern notion of sustainable development. The assets of nature are there for humans to use for their sustenance and development, but the assets of nature are held in trust. This is the essence of the modern concept of sustainable development and Hindu philosophy provides a strong philosophical base for this concept.
4. How Hinduism can contribute to the protection of the environment
Worldwide awareness of the need for protection of the environment and prevention of ecological disaster has taken root, very slowly, only in the past 50 years or so. Thanks to Greenpeace, David Suzuki Foundation, the Al Gore movement, etc it is beginning to gain significant understanding and broad based following only in the last few years.
Although human beings are considered the most intelligent life form on earth, they are responsible for most of the damage done to planet earth.
In India and elsewhere, as awareness of clean water needs, pollution of air, water and soil, global warming, species extinction, etc creates urgency for action, religious thinkers and activists have begun to reflect on how the values of Hindu tradition might contribute to fostering greater care for earth’s ecology. Mahatma Gandhi’s principle of simple living, based on dharmic Hindu principles, is a strong counterpoint to rampant worldwide consumerism, which in some societies has reached repulsive excesses. Sustainability is the watchword; but its practical implementation is such an enormous challenge requiring corporations and big business to reverse traditional “devil may care” attitudes, that global grassroots pressure and action is required to reverse current trends of ecological destruction. Teachings and principles of Hinduism can be adopted by these grassroots movements, to awaken human beings from their complacency or lack of urgency.
In mankind’s struggle to sustain the earth's environment for the future generations, Hinduism’s extremely perceptive views of ecology offer a wealth of understanding and answers to our current ecological crisis.
5. Practical examples from India.
The Bishnois was a small community in Rajasthan who practised environmental conservation as a part of their daily religious duty. The religion is an offshoot of Hinduism and was founded by Guru Maharaj Jambeshwar in the 15th century. He believed that if trees were protected, animal life would be sustained and his community would survive. Therefore he formulated twenty nine injunctions. Principal among them was a ban on the cutting of any green tree and killing of any animal or bird. The Bishnois people’s defence of the natural environment needs to be more widely known as one of the world’s classic instances of martyrdom in defence of the environment. In 1730 Amrita Devi, a Bishnois woman was at home with her three daughters when she came to know that a party of woodcutters sent by the Maharaja of Jodhpur was on its way to fell a green Khejri tree for the construction of the Maharaja’s new palace. She blocked the woodcutters from felling the tree and was killed by them for her resistance, as were her three daughters. The news spread like wildfire among the Bhishnois community and hundreds of them assembled on the spot, prepared to give their lives in this cause and 363 of them did. This is known as the Khejrali Massacre. Later, the Maharaja apologised for the conduct of his officials. This Bishnois sacrifice has since been an inspiration to the environmental protection movements in India.
In 20th century India, the Chipko movement in the Himalayan foothills, “Save the Narmada River” movement in central India, the Appiko movement in the Western mountain range, and many others are significant, and take inspiration from Hindu teachings.
Hindus take an active part in checking Indian government schemes which might damage the environment, such as the building of large-scale dams which could cause the rivers to flood, destroying precious land and animals.
Vandana Shiva has campaigned against genetic modification. She is an Indian scientist motivated by her Hindu beliefs to champion the rights of rural women and farmers. She fought against the genetically modified 'terminator' seeds, which produce only one crop and force farmers to buy new seeds each year from the suppliers. And she campaigns to stop the patenting of the sacred Neem tree. Neem provides a natural and harmless alternative to pesticides, but global corporations have tried to patent it for their own use.
In the Assisi Declarations issued by a gathering of world religions in 1986 the Hindu perspective included the following statements:
• The human role is not separate from nature. Everything in the universe, including beings and non-beings, is pervaded by the same divine spiritual power.
• Nature is sacred and the divine is expressed through all its forms. Reverence for life and ahimsa (non-violence) is an essential principle.
• Nature cannot be destroyed without humanity destroying itself. In India, electric crematoriums are quickly replacing the wood-burning funeral pyres. Waste management is replacing dumping waste into rivers. Wildlife protection systems have been established. Much more needs to be done. Hindu spiritual leaders are spreading the message that our environmental crisis is in essence a spiritual crisis; that we must rejuvenate the values of Hindu teachings and incorporate them in our personal lives, in business, government, corporate and media operations.
6. Practical ideas for you to take with you.
In closing, I would like to encourage each one of you to take to heart the ideas of simplifying your lives, reducing consumerism and making your own personal contribution to saving the environment. This is what Hinduism has taught us. This is what Mahatma Gandhi has inspired us to do.
If we do this, there could be hope that the devastation of the environment will abate, and the end of human civilization could be averted.
So, let us do it in earnest. Let us teach our children. Let us spread the word amongst family, neighbours, educators, and societal leaders, business leaders and the wealthy.
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The Indian World-view and Environmental Crisis
R. P. Misra
http://www.ignca.nic.in/cd_05016.htmThe environmental crisis is no longer a danger still in the womb of time. It is already at our door. The people who feel concerned about the crisis ahead are ever growing in numbers, and they come from all walks of life: academics, intellectuals, scientists, technologists and artists. The search for a paradigm which can ensure economic development without jeopardising environmental quality is being intensified. This search is, however, still within the Western civilizational frame of reference. In fact, there is no serious attempt to look beyond the Cartesian world-view. We are not yet prepared to modify the development paradigm in vogue. We appear to be afraid of the future, not only the emerging future but also the alternative future.
The dominant groups in all societies still subscribe to the view that human ingenuity will triumph in the future as it has triumphed in the past. Science and technology will come to man�s help and rescue him from ecological disaster. This group also believes that progress without tears is impossible. Humanity has always paid a price for development, and it will continue to pay it. The environmental crisis that looms large today is nothing but the price of progress.
This paper explores the potential of an alternative world-view in resolving the environmental crisis. It looks for avenues in Indian culture: its philosophy; its thinking; its life-style; and its approach to solving human problems.
The Indian world-view
India�s written history goes back to over 5,000 years. Archaeological records take this culture further in the past. Its philosophy, thoughts, values and ethics have always had reverence for all that exists in nature, so much so that it evolved the concept of vasudhaiva kutumbakam, i.e. all that is alive, from plants to human species, belongs to a single family. They have originated from a common source and are interdependent. This cultural dictum was accepted not only by the people whom we now call Hindus, but also by other religions like Buddhists and Jains. Even religions like Christianity and Islam have been influenced by these values in India. The question is: Can the Indian world-view, as evident from its cultural heritage, be used as a paradigm for what Gandhi called a �modern civilization�, a civilization which treats nature not only as a source of livelihood but also as a source of life.
Indian culture is deeply rooted in two different but interacting traditions. The Aryans had their sway in the Indus and subsequently in the Ganga Valley: and the Dravidians to the south of the Vindhyas. The two interacted to produce not only the Vedic and post-Vedic cultures but also perhaps the Indus civilization. Many of statuettes and seals found in Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, and later in part of Gujarat and Rajasthan, indicate that some of the concepts which now constitute the core of Indian culture were present in their incipient even then. For example, the statuette of the Mother found in Mohenjo-Daro points to what later gave rise to the concept of Mother Earth or Sakti.
Origin of life
True, many schools of thought propounded by rsis like Carvak deny the existence of God or paramatma. What has, however, gripped the mind of India is not the deviations but a cross-current that �there is One without a second�, or "All this is Brahman�. Brahman is devoid of any attribute. Nothing can be positively postulated about him. He can be indicated only by �not this, not this�.
This God without form is perceived by humans differently. These perceptions when generalized and collectivized give rise to various philosophies and religions. Religions are nothing but paths to one and the same reality. The concept of God unites all human beings into a single family. Nay, it unites all that exists in the universe � living and non-living � making them interdependent.
The Brahman reveals Himself in two ways: as unconscious or matter (jada) or conscious or live (jiva). It could also be called non-self (acetana) and self (cetana). While the non-self or unconscious is not eternal, the self or the conscious is eternal. The non-eternal ultimately ends as the atoms which went to create it. The atman is indestructible, it is part of paramatman. It cannot be reduced to atoms.
The concept of unity of life is not limited to the human species. It covers all forms of life which may be classified into:
1. jarayuja (viviparous)
2. andaja (oviparous)
3. udbhija (germinating)
4. svedaja (generated by heat and moisture)
The first are born of placenta, like human beings and animals; the second of eggs, like birds and reptiles; the third break through the earth, like plants; and the fourth are born of heat and moisture, like bacteria. Inorganic matter (jada) does not possess the above qualities even though the process of production of the two is the same.
Creation, according to Hindu thought, is not purposeless, nor it is random. Its goal is to move towards a perfect human being; towards moksa or bliss. Anything that endangers life on earth or which interferes with the processes to reach that goal, is undesirable. If there is anything that comes close to the Indian theory of evolution of life, it is the Gian theory.
Concept of progress
The Indian concept of progress is different from the one currently in vogue. Development, in the modern sense, essentially means economic development. It means higher GNP and per capita income and more consumption goods. A progressive society is one whose values do not clash with these developmental values. To receive development, people have to make certain sacrifices. They have to discard all those values which come in the way of development. To see divinity in nature is anti-developmental, for divinity is unintelligible. To think of unity of life is anti-developmental, for all other life forms are resources for the benefit of man. He can use them the way he wants.
Indian culture has a different concept of development called mangalya. It means a state in which man has no insurmountable problems and the natural, cultural and social environment in which he lives is conducive to his overall welfare. Mangalya is not limited to an individual; it covers all those humans and other lives in and around the individual. It is collective welfare. It carries man towards a blissful life. The collectivity includes all living and non-living entities the individual in question is linked to. Modern development can take place at the cost of other people and lives, and indeed at the cost of nature. But not mangalya.
There is another word that goes with mangalya: kusala. This conveys welfare in general, while mangalya conveys bliss. Indian culture has always aspired to achieve kusala and mangala. True, it has at times deviated from this path, but the goal was fixed, and society after brief interludes of deviations returned to the path of sanity, if we may say so.
Indian culture goes beyond human beings to take care of all that is living, from plants to elephants. It does not prohibit the use of nature. Rather, it encourages its use but only to the extent that its vitality is not adversely affected. One of the ways to maintain this vitality is to practise simple living and high thinking, and the other way is to insist on duties more than on rights of individuals. A farmer has the right to cut a tree, but only if he fulfils his duty to plant five other trees. The idea is that if everyone performs his duties honestly, the rights of all will be automatically preserved.
Ecological basis of Indian culture
It is for this reason that ever since the Indus valley civilization and more so from Vedic times, Indian culture has preached reverence for nature. It never thought nature to be a resource for exploitation. It always treated it as a source of not only sustenance, survival and happiness but also as a system of which humans are an inseparable part.
Nature is sacred
All that exists in nature is essential for life. If nature were not evolved the way it has evolved, there would have been no life, or life would have taken a different form. Mountains, rivers, oceans, animals and plants are therefore sacred. They cannot be defiled. They should be used, but only with compassion and without jeopardizing their species. Beliefs that all that is valuable has come from the ocean, that the Himalayas are the abode of Siva, that the Ganga�s water purifies everything, that the Ganga is a mother for the teeming millions even today, that the cow is sacred, all these have philosophical and scientific bases. God has come down to earth in animal forms too, like fish, boar, half-lion and half-human. Ganesa, who is worshiped all over India, is half elephant and half human. Almost all gods and goddesses have animals as their vahan (vehicles). Even the snake deserves our protection and reverence. Trees have received very special consideration, for they are the source of fruits, medicines and oxygen. Concepts of kalpavrksa, the tree which gives everything, and of kamadhenu, the cow which fulfils all desires, represent our values towards nature and life in general.
To say that all primitive societies had similar approaches to nature and that the modern scientific world cannot depend on such ideas for progress is to exhibit ignorance of what lies behind these traditions.
Modern man, proud as he is of his scientific and technological achievements, has been trying to develop methods and processes to uncover the mysteries of nature and use the knowledge so derived to control it and thus to induce higher productivity and secure a wide range of consumer goods which did not exist earlier. But any attempt to control nature can succeed only in the short run. In the long run nature appears to take revenge, because the natural system, including human beings, is governed by certain cosmic laws of integration and balance which the Vedas call Rta.
The processes whose perpetual sameness or regular recurrence give rise to the representation of order obey Rta or their occurrence is R�ta, says Maurice Bloomfield. We read in the Vedas that �The rivers flow R�ta. According to the R�ta the light of the heaven-born morning has come . . . . The year is the path of R�ta. The gods themselves are born of the R�ta or in the R�ta; they show by the acts that they know, observe and love the R�ta. In man�s activity, the R�ta manifests itself as the moral law�.
To obtain nature�s bounty, man must obey Rta: �for one who lives according to Eternal Law, the winds are full of sweetness, the rivers pour sweet. So may the plants be full of sweetness for us�. The Vedic poet Atharva thus clearly reveals the human dependence on the order of the cosmos and the human role in maintaining it by observing the ancient law. He was perhaps the first deep ecologist of the world.
The same concept later finds a place in Buddha�s dharmacakra. When a Buddhist lama turns his prayer wheel, he reminds us all of the Rta. As Jane Harrison notes, �He finds himself in sympathetic touch with the Wheel of the Universe when he performs the act Dharma-Chakra-Pravartana (justice wheel setting in motion). He dare not turn the Wheel contrariwise lest that were to upset the whole order of nature�.
The concept of vasudhaiva kutumbakam still prevails among the indigenous peoples in other parts of the world. It was also present in other great civilizations and cultures which gave rise to the great religions of the world. Raphael Patai in Man and Temple in Ancient Jewish Myth and Ritual says:
The fact that primitive man draws no strict line of cleavage between the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdom on the one hand, and human beings on the other, has been so often emphasized that it can be regarded as [an] anthropological commonplace�.
Jane Harrison in Themis: A Study of the Social Origins of Greek Religion says,
To man, in the totemistic stage of thinking, Dike and Themis, natural order and social order, are not distinguished, not even distinguishable. Plants and animals are part of this group, a factor in his social structure. It is not that he takes them under his protection: they are his equals, his fellow-tribesmen; naturally they obey the same laws.
This integrated approach to life continued in India until modern times, because Indian culture never became a matter of history and museums. It has been alive and vibrant ever since it began. Indians, incidentally, believe that it had no origin, that it is sanatana.
Concept of Panca Bhuta
According to the Indian cultural traditions, all that exists in the universe, whether organic and inorganic, has five constituent elements. These are:
Air
Water
Fire (heat/energy)
Earth (rock)
Space (ether)
Everything comes from varying combinations of these five elements and everything ultimately returns to them. These together create nature.
Concept of Mother Earth
When the disciple asks Atharva Rsi about the nature of the relationship between man and Earth, the rsi says:
mata bhumi putro aham prthivya
Earth is the Mother; and we are her children.
When the pupil asks what is the nature of the Earth the rsi replies: �The Earth has hills and snow-covered mountains; it has dense forests and soils of different colours; it is the mother of herbs, it has fire inside, and also gets energy from the sun; it produces a special odour which enriches all that exists and grows on it�.
The rsi adds, �to protect us from all that is evil, the Earth contains pure water. It purifies all that is impure. It cleans everything that goes in it. Earth is a real purifier of all that is undesirable and unclean. Let us not hurt its vitals and its heart. Let us use it judiciously�. And he goes on:
jana vibrati bahudha vivacasam
nana dharmanam prthivi yathaukasam
sahasra dhara dravitasya ye duham
dhruvena dhamurenk pasphuranti
�The earth is full of variety; it contains people speaking different dialects and speech, of diverse religious customs, each living according to what they think is right. The earth contains innumerable valuable things. It bears trees and plants of great diversity. We should pay homage to that Earth�.
The Prthivi Sukta of the Atharvaveda represents the main currents of Indian thought insofar as man�s relation to the Earth is concerned. The post-Vedic literature of Hindu, Buddhist and Jain thought is imbued with reverence, love, and compassion for nature and also with concepts of not only the unity of life but also the unity of what is cetana (living) and what is acetana (non-living). The Svetasvatara Upanisad captures the essence of this integration and unity when it describes nature in the following terms:
yo devo agro yo apsu yo visvam bhuvanamavivesa
yo osdhisu yo vanaspatisu tasme devaya namo namah
The God who is in fire, who is in water, who pervades the whole universe, who is in medicines, who is in vegetation, we salute that God.
Indian culture paid special attention to land. Soil conservation methods developed in India are still unmatched. Green manuring, barn manure, crop rotation, intercropping, ploughing, irrigation and other agricultural methods and practices were designed to maintain and enhance the fertility of the soil. Soil erosion did occur on a minor scale, but the rainwater carrying the topsoil was never allowed to go down the streams. It was captured in ponds and tanks. These little water bodies of a few acres were excavated in summer and the soil removed was taken to the land again. It was also used for the construction or repair of houses. And thus the cycle continued.
Water, the purifier
Pure and uncontaminated water commands a high value in Indian culture. No ceremony, from birth to death, is complete and perfect without gangajal (water of the river Ganga). The story of the descent of the Ganga has formed the subject-matter of many great books. In scientific terminology, it is a description of the hydrological cycle and of monsoon clouds bursting over the greater Himalayas. The water so released gets locked as snow. Snow flows through glaciers which ultimately form rivers like Ganga. But for the Ganga, the land between the Himalayas and the Vindhyas would have not nurtured such a great culture. The same applies to other Indian rivers, Sindhu, Brahmaputra, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery, Narmada and Tapti. Each one of them is sacred.
India has the distinction of developing unique irrigation systems as early as 3,000 years ago which conserved and replenished surface and ground water and improved the living environment. Those of us who are familiar with the Deccan plateau know that thousands of tanks which dot this region and around which villages are built provide an excellent example of how man can improve the environment. But for these artificial tanks, much of the plateau would have been barren and human existence precarious.
The annecuts that our forefathers built across rivers in South India point to what could be done to avoid the human tragedies of the Narmada project, for example. Wells of drinking water dotted the villages and towns of India. The water of these wells was kept clean by frequent withdrawal for irrigation. There was no chance of contamination.
One can give several examples of water management, particularly watershed planning and water harvesting. The choice of crops and trees depended on the climatic conditions, particularly rainfall. So even in the Rajasthan desert, people were able to maintain forests. Our forefathers knew the close relationship between trees, rainfall, water table and soil moisture. Cropping patterns were designed to conserve water and tanks were constructed to harvest it.
The forest: the abode of the gods
Forests constitute a very important part of Indian culture. Most of the ancient books like the Vedas, Puranas, Brahmanas and Aranyakas were written by rsis living in forests, sometimes high up in the mountains. One finds references to three main types of forests (vana) in ancient times. These are:
1. Mahavana
2. Tapovana
3. Srivana
Mahavana was a dense, virgin and natural forest covering large mountainous, hilly and low-lying areas. Such forests were devoid of human habitation and human interference was therefore negligible. They were rich in biodiversity. They were the main sources of medicines. Lord Siva is the presiding deity of the mahavanas. No one dared to encroach upon them. They remained virgin and covered a large part of India.
The tapovana, as the very name, indicates was the forest where sages did tapas (penance and meditation). It had asramas where gurus taught their pupils. Asramas were away from human habitation and in the interior, but people had access to them for religious and educational purposes. They were full of plants and trees which gave edible and medicinal leaves, roots, fruits shade and soothing climate. It was in these forests that our Upanisadas and Aranyakas were written. There are still some tapovanas like the one near Haridvar.
Most of the tapovanas were destroyed during the last 500 years or so. And thus the tradition of rsis and sadhus living detached from the common people and engaging themselves in meditation, writing, and teaching died. It is pertinent to note that the tapovanas abounded in wildlife, but none was allowed to kill animals. Even princes were punished for killing animals as game. It was in these forests that training in the use of weapons was also imparted. It was part of the overall education of pupils. Thus matters pertaining to peace as well as war were really in the hands of saintly people. Trainees were prohibited from using arms for purposes which were outside dharma or moral duty. This is what ensured peace in society. People dejected with life went to the tapovana instead of committing suicide as happens today. Excommunicated criminals also went there for repentance and cleansing themselves under the feet of the samnyasins.
Srivanas were local (village or town) forests. They were not within human habitation; rather human habitation was within them. These forests were managed by village and town pancayats. People depended on them for fuel, medicines, fruits and other day-to-day domestic needs. While they had access to these forests, they also had the duty to conserve, protect, replenish and enrich them. Enriching was done through planting of trees in replacement of trees cut.
Srivanas had various kinds of trees, depending on soil, climate and other environmental conditions and local needs. Tulsi (basil) was found in abundance, for it was medicinal and at the same time improved the fertility of the soil. No puja of a Hindu god is complete even today without tulsi leaves. Srivanas abounded in fruit orchards. The concept of social forestry thus was known to Indians even in that deep past. We are now trying to import it from the World Bank.
Five species of trees were a must in the Srivanas. These were banyan, peepal, asoka, bela and harada. The banyan is a self-generating plant. It does not die. In fact it acquires the form of a grove in course of time. It is therefore associated with fertility and longevity. It is the abode of Lord Siva and Devi Parvati. It is shady, healthful and medicinal. The peepal (ficus religiosa) is perhaps the most sacred tree in India. It is the only tree that gives oxygen for more than 20 hours a day. It is on this tree that Hindus� ancestors reside. It is the incarnation of Lord Visnu. Every part of the peepal has medicinal value.
The asoka tree under which Sita, Lord Ram�s consort, spent much time in Lanka, is a pain-killer, as the name indicates, apart from being shady. The bela (aegle marmelos) bears fruit of great curative value. It is useful in a large number of diseases. Its leaves are offered to Lord Siva. That is why wherever there is a Siva temple, there invariably are bela trees. The last of the five trees is the harad (myrobalem terminalia shebual). It is perhaps the most commonly used medicinal plant. It has great curative qualities and is relevant for practically all diseases.
The name pancavati is derived from these five trees. Every village had a pancavati even if it did not have a srivana. The trees were not necessarily the same as listed above, nor was the number of trees fixed. They differed from region to region and sometimes from place to place and people to people.
Air contains pranvayu
Clear air was always cherished by Indians. They knew that trees gave oxygen, pranvayu. That is why breathing exercises were done in the forests or pancavatis and forests were given such prominence. And that is why every village had to have trees. Look at the old Indian architecture, the open spaces, the verandahs, the aspect of buildings, the windows, etc. All ensured the entry of fresh air. All religious ceremonies were performed in the open. People slept in the open except in winter. One has to go through the slokas of the Rgveda, the most ancient book of India, to realize the importance Indians gave to the natural environment and nature�s laws. A glimpse at the miniatures of the Mughal period gives a clear indication of the importance that even the Muslim rulers of India gave to trees, foliage, plants and animals.
Indian and Western world-views compared
As Richard St. Barbe-baker says, �this generation may either be the last to exist in any semblance of civilized world or it will be the last to have the vision, the bearing and the greatness to say "I will have nothing to do with this destruction of life; I will play no part in this devastation of land; I am determined to live and work for peaceful construction for I am morally responsible for the world of today and the generations of tomorrow".� He perhaps did not know that this is exactly what Indian sages said some 5,000 years ago and what many of the so-called primitive societies not only say but live even today.
Barbe-baker has in view the Western world-view and the man in the West who �has lost his way in the jungle of chemistry and engineering and will have to retrace his steps, however painful this may be. He will have to discover where he went wrong and make his peace with nature. In so doing, perhaps he may be able to recapture the rhythm of life and the love of the simple things of life which will be an ever unfolding joy to him�.
Many others have expressed similar views. But those who still think that man will ultimately overcome all hurdles and that science and technology will resolve the environmental problems too, as they resolved other problems in the past, are not in a minority. In fact, the ruling elites all over the world subscribe to this view, and no amount of evidence that disapproves of their thinking can induce them to change their perspective. If they ultimately do accept a new world-view, it will be only because the ruling paradigms would have changed so much that facts no longer appeared credible. They flow with the current. When the current has changed, they will flow with the new current.
Thus the Indian world-view cannot stand the test of today�s modernity, a product of the Western world-view. Within this paradigm, no argument in favour of an alternative paradigm will be accepted. The whole structure and superstructure of society today is built and sustained by the paradigm of modernism. A shift from this would be as painful as conversion to another religion. The whole pattern of life, mental constructs and images will have to change. As religious conversions have take place only under very special circumstances, the shift from the developmental paradigm to the ecological paradigm will also occur only under special circumstances of stresses and strains. It is the contention of this paper that such stresses and strains have already become visible. There are signs of a stir in the minds of people, elites as well as common people, which are portentous for the ruling paradigm.
What we see today in the world is an environment of crises. There is an ethical crisis leading to movements to reconstruct the polity. What happened in the USSR, Italy and Japan in recent months is a sign of the beginning of a new moral order. The environmental crisis has gripped the whole world � rich and poor alike. While the mainstream nations and people still pin their hopes on science and technology, strong voices calling for a new style of life and a new paradigm have now become audible. Grassroots level movements, small to start with, have begun networking themselves to have universal appeal and global impact.
Elsewhere there are revivalist movements, at times not very peaceful. They also are, in a way, voices of dissent, signs of frustration and attempts to get out of the Western bandwagon on which they were forced to travel. The revival of religiosity such as in Iran or Afghanistan should not be seen only as a craving for the dead past but also as a rebellion against the prevailing world order. Religion is only a rallying point. Attempts to crush such movements by force would make them more obscurantist. The unscrupulous will take advantage of the situation to divert the movement towards unintended goals.
In India too, rethinking has begun. More and more scientists, artists, scholars, men in public life, and people in general have started looking into their rich traditions which were lost as the Western paradigm superseded Indian values. In fact, the Hindu, Buddhist and Jain philosophies have started getting new adherents all over the world. Any attempt to delink Indian society from dharma or even religion in that sense is resisted. Even the modern Carvaks, for whom religion is the opium of the people, are changing. The citadel of communism has already fallen. Religion has come back in what was the USSR. It is now only a matter of years, not even of decades, for the Indian world-view to take root in India again.
Gandhi�s contributions
We have had the great fortune of having persons like Mahatma Gandhi, Aurobindo and Vivekanand in the first half of this century, and saints like Acarya Tulsi, the Dalai Lama, Satya Sai Baba, the Paramacarya of Kanchi and many other dharmacaryas in the second half of this century to guide the destiny of India. Gandhi�s greatest contribution was not the Independence of India, for India could not have remained in bondage longer than it was, but the framework of an alternative world-view and the methodology of achieving it. He gave the outline of an alternative civilization and a creative future for mankind. His genius encompassed all religious traditions of the world, for they were one and the same as far as the essentials were concerned. Rituals differ but the goals are the same, the methods are the same and the message is the same. They all are ecological and human. His often cited quotation that �Earth has enough to meet everyone�s need but not everyone�s greed� is the centrepiece of the world-view of ecology and humanism that we are looking for. Let us not be carried away by the mesmerism of the Western world-view and heed the warning he gave to the world several decades before his assassination in 1948:
God forbid that India should ever take to industrialism after the manner of the West. The economic imperialism of a single tiny island kingdom is today keeping the world in chains. If an entire nation of 300 million took to similar economic exploitation, it would strip the world bare like locusts.
Attempts at value education
Incorporation of the time-honoured Indian values discussed above in the educational system in India has been stressed from time to time. Mahatma Gandhi offered a new concept of education wherein head, heart and hand could be trained to work in unison and give rise to creative human beings. He termed it nai talim or New Education. It was new in the sense that it was completely different from the Western model of education in vogue. Nai talim laid great stress on pupils� contact with nature through manual work and on the concept of unity of life.
Somehow, the concept of Basic Education was completely rejected by India after Independence. The educational system which the British had created was not only retained but also strengthened. This was, however, not an isolated step. Other Gandhian concepts including that of development were also rejected. Now in the 1990, we hear more of Gandhi than we did in the 1960s through the 1980s.
As early as 1959, the Sri Prakasa Committee on Religious and Moral Education set up by the Ministry of Education stated,
Many ills that our world of education and our society as a whole is suffering today resulting in widespread disturbance and dislocation of life are mainly due to the gradual disappearance of the hold of basic principles of religion on the hearts of the people . . . . The only cure, it seems to us, is in deliberate inculcation of moral and spiritual values from the earliest years of our lives.
Let us note here that in the Indian context, religious and moral education incorporate ecological and environmental education.
The Commission on Education (1964-66) chaired by the late Professor D.S. Kothari was more vocal on the issue of value education:
Modernization did not mean, least of all in our national situation, a refusal to recognize the importance of or to inculcate necessary moral and spiritual values and self-discipline. While a combination of ignorance with goodness may be futile, that of knowledge with a lack of essential values may be dangerous.
The weakening of social and moral values in the younger generation is creating many serious social and ethical conflicts in western societies and there is already a desire among great western thinkers to balance the knowledge and skills which science and technology bring with the values and insights associated with ethics and religion at its best, viz. a search for the knowledge of self, of the meaning of life, of the relationship of man to other human beings and the ultimate reality. In the situation that is developing, it is equally important for us to give a proper value orientation to our educational system.
India has a unique advantage with her great tradition of duty without self-involvement, unacquisitive temperament, tolerance, and innate love of peace and reverence for all living things. Too often are these precious assets forgotten and we tend to relapse into moods of pessimism, fears and forebodings, discord and destructive criticism. A new pride and a deeper faith expressed in living for the noble ideals of peace and freedom, truth and compassion are now needed.
Several other committees, commissions, seminars, conferences and plan documents have since then repeated these views. Not much, however, happened in policy and programme terms, and the educational system of the country continued as usual. The call for a new education policy, however, became so persistent that Parliament, under the 42nd Amendment Act of 1976, inserted Fundamental Duties to match the Fundamental Rights guaranteed by the Constitution of India. Among these duties, at least five were pertinent to the environment. These are:
1. to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional or sectional diversities; to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women;
2. to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture;
3. to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wild life, and to have compassion for living creatures;
4. to develop scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of enquiry and reform; and
5. to safeguard public property and to abjure violence.
The incorporation of environmental protection among the statutory duties of Indian citizens was perhaps inspired by the Stockholm conference on the environment in which Mrs Indira Gandhi, the then Prime Minister of India, played a leading role.
The National Education Policy Statement, 1986 included these points and suggested a national curricular framework which included:
the history of India�s freedom movement, the constitutional obligations and other contents essential to nurture national identity. These elements will cut across subject areas and will be designed to promote values such as India�s common cultural heritage, egalitarianism, democracy and secularism, equality of sex, protection of environment, removal of social barriers, observance of small family norms and inculcation of scientific temper.
The Ramamurthy Committee, which reviewed this policy in 1990, had this to say:
The hidden curriculum, as distinct from the explicit ones obtaining in the classroom situation, is much more important for the development of balanced personality amongst the students. It is also the role of value education to bring about integration of the hand, head and heart to ensure that education does not alienate the students from the family, community and life. One of the key roles of education should be creation of a work culture at all stages of education so that the individual develops into a socially and economically useful human being with respect for the welfare of all livings beings (sarva bhoota hitha). Above all else, critical appreciation and concern for the cultural and artistic heritage of the country has to be instilled amongst the students. It is this package of values which will help the creation and sustenance of an enlightened and human society in the country.
The five-year plans of India have consistently upheld the need to promote value education. The Seventh Plan (1985-90) stated:
Value orientation of education should constitute a special thrust in the Seventh Plan, teacher education particularly being oriented for this purpose.
Earlier, in 1981, a seminar on value education held at Shimla said:
There should be an integrated approach in the value oriented education programme. Instead of tackling piecemeal with such areas as awareness of ecology, environmental protection, community development, productivity, population stabilization, aesthetic education, national integration and international understanding, etc., they should be handled in a comprehensive manner under the broad spectrum of social responsibility and inner development of human personality.
Light in the darkness
Even though the educational system of the country has not yet responded favourably to the above recommendation and business of education is as usual, attempts at value education have not been lacking. A number of institutions have taken up this challenge with all earnestness and have shown quite encouraging results. Among these institutions, mention may be made of:
1. Institutions associated with Satya Sai Baba
2. Institutions associated with the Ramakrishna Mission
3. Institutions associated with the Aurobindo Ashram
4. Vanasthali Vidyapeeth, Rajasthan
5. Jain Vishva Bharati, Ladnun, and related institutions
6. The Saraswati Vidya Mandir System of Schools
A recent report on the work-load on pupils in primary and secondary education (Yash Pal Committee Report, 1993) strongly recommended the Gandhian approach to learning (without mentioning Gandhi�s name).
There are many other institutions in different parts of the country. Those listed above use different approaches and methodologies with the same end results. What runs through them all is the thread of spirituality and ecological thinking. All these institutions instil value education through coursework as well as practice. The fact that their network is expanding, and they are being voluntarily accepted by parents as the right institutions for their children, is indicative of the wind of change.
In addition to these institutions, a large number of NGOs and voluntary agencies have now entered the field of value education in India. Some of them have evolved innovative programmes, particularly in the area of environmental education. Recent attempts to learn from the environmental values of tribal and village communities are indicative of the approaching scenario. The great religious traditions are being explored again to distill much of the environmental values which are now lost or getting lost, and which need to be revived, to bring about an eco-development process. We do thus see some light in the darkness.
Let us not be perplexed; let us follow the Upanisadic exhortation:
uttisthan jagrat prapya varan nibodhat
dyurasya dhara nisita duretyaya
durgam patham tat kavayo vadanti
Get up, wake up, and learn from the knowledgeable. As it is difficult to walk on the razor�s edge, so it is difficult to walk on a right path.
That the right path of development is the ecological path is the message of Indian culture.
References
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��, 1968, National Policy on Education
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